Deus Artefacta: Jericho

Jericho (Tel es-Sultan)

INDEX of Sites

Jericho (Josh 2–3)

DeVries summarizes the belief of the majority of scholars today,[1] regarding the evidence for the destruction of Jericho (Tell es-Sulṭân; see Map 1), when he states: “Jericho could be called “the big disappointment of biblical archaeology” because excavations at the site have failed to produce the kind of evidence described in the biblical account of the conquest of Jericho in Joshua 6.”[2]

Aerial view of the Tel of Jericho. PD

As a result of five excavation campaigns at Jericho over the various years,[3] there is agreement on several issues. 1). The city was surrounded by a double stone wall topped with mudbrick distinguishing an upper and lower city.[4] 2). Significant quantities of grain were recovered from several of the storage rooms.[5] 3). Jericho was destroyed by a violent fire indicated by a thick (ca. 1 m) layer of char, and the stone revetment wall collapsed (fig. 74).[6]

The controversy revolves around the issue of when the destruction occurred. John Garstang (worked between 1930 and 1936) stated that it was in the LB period (1400 BC),[7] while Kathleen Kenyon (worked between1952 and 1958) argued that Garstang made an error, and dated it to the MB period (1550 BC).[8] The recent excavation by the University of Rome confirms Kenyon’s assessment of a MB destruction[9] with a small LB occupation on the top of the tall (fig. 74).[10]

74. Tell es-Sulṭân, the site of biblical Jericho. Trench I excavated by Kathleen Kenyon (Area C, MB2 1800–1650 BC). ‚ 5 m. high Cyclopean Wall destroyed in ca. 1550 BC (Area A, MB2 1650–1550 BC).

ƒ Houses built outside Building A1 against the eastern side of the tower (Area A, MB2 1800–1650 BC).

In 1990, Bryant Wood re-evaluated the data from the earlier excavations of Kenyon, and challenged her date of 1550 BC for the destruction of the city, based on his reading of her low grade imitations of Cypriot “bichrome” pottery (fig. 73).[11] Wood realigned the MB pottery dates to match ca. 1400 BC (LBA), aligning them with an early date for the Exodus and Conquest.

Wood identified several flaws in Kenyon’s methodology. 1). First, she based her conclusions on the absence of Cypriot bichrome pottery.[12] 2). Second, she drew her conclusions from a very small area of the tell (two 26 by 26 foot [8 meter] squares).[13] 3). Third, she failed to publish her finds and research. While she did publish a popular work on Jericho in 1957 called Digging Up Jericho and two massive volumes in 1960 and 1964, her four final volumes were published posthumously (1981–1983) by Kenyon’s editor Thomas A. Holland, who compiled and reworked her excavation reports.[14]

Wood’s views were met with criticism from several knowledgeable archaeologists.[15] In reply, Wood admitted that the difference between LBA and the MBA pottery styles are difficult to distinguish:

it is important to recognize that the pottery of the Late Bronze I period is very similar to that of the final phase of the Middle Bronze period. In fact, the material culture of the Late Bronze I period is simply a continuation of that of the Middle Bronze period. As a result, many Middle Bronze forms continue into Late Bronze I. There are subtle differences in a number of types, however, and several new forms are introduced. With careful study of the pottery evidence, therefore, it is possible to distinguish the Late Bronze I period from the terminal phase of the Middle Bronze period [Emphasis added].[16]

Wood also acknowledged that: “It remains for me to publish a critique of Kenyon’s theories and an in-depth study of the pottery from the various expeditions, to demonstrate that Kenyon’s conclusions were incorrect and that Garstang’s analysis is the correct interpretation for the dating of the destruction of Jericho.”[17]

Since the 1950’s and Kenyon’s excavation, little was done at Jericho (Tell es-Sulṭân next to the modern city of Ariha) until the joint work of the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage and the Italian-Palestinian Expedition (1997–2000, 2009–2018) from the University of Rome, “La Sapienza”. While the work carried out was primarily focused on restoration of the site and reconciling the previous work of Garstang and Kenyon in the EB and MB strata, they did identify Late Bronze age (Period V 1650–1550 BC) occupation in Area G, on the acropolis. In 2006, Nigro reported the location of these LB structures:

75. The author holding a large mudbrick from the site of OT Jericho.

One is the Spring Hill, on the top of which, in Area G, a major sustaining wall (W.633) was identified, presumably terracing the acropolis with public buildings, and at the bottom of which, in Area D, cleaning works brought to light a huge mud-brick wall (W.7; [fig. 75]), just in front of the Spring, cut by the modern road. LBA buildings (the so-called Middle Building and a house to the north-east) excavated by Garstang.[18]

However, Nigro goes on to explain the reason for the lack of evidence:

A few materials and some tombs are known from period V, the Late Bronze Age [1550–1200 BC], even though not a single pottery fragment from this period was found on the tell by the Italian-Palestinian Expedition. Iron Age materials were found in Area B58, while in Areas G and F on the summit of the Spring Hill and on the northern plateau intensive razing of later periods had removed all strata down to the Middle or even to the Early Bronze Age.[19]

Archaeological Evidence

Wood and others have pointed out several parallels between the Biblical account of Jericho’s destruction and the archaeological evidence.

· Jericho was strongly fortified (Josh 2:5, 7, 15; 6:5, 20). Holland described that excavations revealed the “remains of three successive and massive plastered ramparts which surrounded”[20] the city. The gateway was uncovered in 1998 by the University of Rome (fig. 74).[21]

· The fortification walls collapsed at the time the city was destroyed, possibly by earthquake activity (Josh 6:20; fig. 74).

· The destruction occurred at harvest time, in the spring (month of Adar, i.e., February/March), as indicated by the large quantities of grain stored in the city (Josh 2:6; 3:15; 5:10). Both Garstang and Kenyon found several grain-filled storage jars that were burned. Kenyon reported over six bushels of grain excavated in one season alone (fig. 76).[22]

· The siege of Jericho was short, as the grain stored in the city was not consumed (Josh 6:1, 15, 20). Since it would normally take several months or even years to subdue a well-supplied city, as is illustrated from Masada, which took the Romans three years to capture, the storage jars at Jericho filled with charred grain indicate they did not have time to consume the grain, suggesting a shorter siege as described in the biblical narrative.

76. Grain storage jars are still visible here in one of Kenyon’s balks in Jericho.

Contrary to what was customary, the grain was not plundered to feed their armies, or taken by the citizens, but in accordance with God’s command, Joshua burned it all (Josh 6:1, 17–18). This discovery is unique in archaeology, given the high value of grain in ancient culture. It would be like taking a bank and burning the money.

· The city walls were leveled as part of the destruction (Josh 6:20; fig. 74).[23]

· The city was massively destroyed by fire (Josh 6:24). The east side of the tell was excavated and they found a layer of burned ash and debris about one metre thick. Kenyon described the destruction in her own words:

The destruction was complete. Walls and floors were blackened or reddened by fire, and every room was filled with fallen bricks, timbers, and household utensils; in most rooms the fallen debris was heavily burnt, but the collapse of the walls of the eastern rooms seems to have taken place before they were affected by the fire.[24]

· Jericho laid abandoned for a period of time following its destruction, in accordance with Joshua’s curse (Josh 6:26).

As Amihai Mazar points out:

At Jericho, no remains of the Late Bronze fortification were found; this was taken as evidence against the historical value of the narrative in the Book of Joshua. The finds at Jericho, however, show that there was a settlement there during the Late Bronze Age, though most of its remains were eroded or removed by human activity. Perhaps, as at other sites, the massive Middle Bronze fortifications were reutilized in the Late Bronze Age. The Late Bronze Age settlement at Jericho was followed by an occupation gap in Iron Age I. Thus, in the case of Jericho, the archaeological data cannot serve as decisive evidence to deny a historical nucleus in the Book of Joshua concerning the conquest of

this city.[25]

77. Burnt gate at Khirbet el-Maqatir (Ai?) from the time of Joshua (LB ca. 1400 BC). The Bible states that Joshua burned the gate.

Courtesy of Michael C. Luddeni

While the date of the destruction of the city continues to be debated, there is no doubt that the city met with a violent end and scholars should at least be open to the possibility that the destruction involved the army of Israel as they entered the Promised Land.

[1] Kathleen M. Kenyon and Thomas A. Holland, Excavations at Jericho, Vol. II (only): The Tombs excavated in 1955-8. (British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, 1965); H. J. Franken, “Tell Es-Sultan and Old Testament Jericho,” OtSt 14 (1965): 190, 200; James F. Strange, “The Book of Joshua: A Hasmonean Manifesto?,” in History and Traditions of Early Israel: Studies Presented to Eduard Nielsen, ed. André LeMaire and Benedikt Otzen, VTSup 50 (Leiden: Brill Academic, 1993), 141; “Jericho (Place),” in ABD, 3:724–26; Michael D. Coogan et al., eds., The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha: New Revised Standard Version, 4th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 327.

[2] LaMoine F. DeVries, Cities of the Biblical World: An Introduction to the Archaeology, Geography, and History of Biblical Sites (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2006), 189.

[3] Thomas A. Holland, “Jericho (Place),” in ABD, 3:724–26.

[4] Kathleen M. Kenyon and Thomas A. Holland, Excavations at Jericho, vol. 3 (Jerusalem: British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, 1982), 3:110.

[5] Kathleen M. Kenyon, Digging up Jericho: The Results of the Jericho Excavations, 1952-1956 (London: Praeger & Benn, 1957), 230.

[6] Holland speculates that it may have come to an end by disease or a violent earthquake. Nigro favours the earthquake explanation. John Garstang and J. B. E. Garstang, The Story of Jericho, New revised edition (London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1948), 136; Kathleen M. Kenyon and Thomas A. Holland, Excavations at Jericho, vol. 3 (Jerusalem: British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, 1982), 3: pl. 236; Kathleen M. Kenyon, “Jericho,” in NEAEHL, 2:679–80; Lorenzo Nigro and Hamdan Taha, eds., Tell Es-Sultan/Jericho in the Context of the Jordan Valley: Site Management, Conservation, and Sustainable Development, Studies on the Archaeology of Palestine & Transjordan 2 (Rome: University of Rome, “La Sapienza,” 2006), 25, 34; Holland, “Jericho (Place),” in ABD, 3:736.

[7] John Garstang, The Foundations of Bible History: Joshua, Judges (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1978), 146; Garstang and Garstang, The Story of Jericho, 133–53, 167.

[8] Kenyon, Digging up Jericho, 261–62; “Jericho (Place),” in ABD 2:680.

[9] Nigro and Taha, Tell Es-Sultan/ Jericho in the Context of the Jordan Valley, 34.

[10] Ibid., 25.

[11] Bryant G. Wood, “Did the Israelites Conquer Jericho? A New Look at the Archaeological Evidence,” BAR 16, no. 2 (1990): 44–58; “Dating Jericho’s Destruction: Bienkowski Is Wrong on All Counts,” BAR 16, no. 5 (1990): 45, 47–49, 68–69; “From Ramesses to Shiloh: Archaeological Discoveries Bearing on the exodus–Judges Period,” in Giving the Sense: Understanding and Using Old Testament Historical Texts, ed. David M. Howard, Jr. and Michael A. Grisanti (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic & Professional, 2004), 256–82.

[12] Kathleen M. Kenyon, “The Middle and Late Bronze Age Strata at Megiddo,” Levant 1, no. 1 (1969): 50–51; Palestine in the Time of the Eighteenth Dynasty: Volume 2, Part 1: The Middle East and the Aegean Region, c.1800–1380 BC, 3^rd ed., CAH 69 (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1973), 2.1:528–29; Archaeology in the Holy Land, 5th ed. (Nashville: Nelson, 1979), 162–220.

[13] Michael A. Grisanti, “Recent Archaeological Discoveries That Lend Credence to the Historicity of the Scriptures,” JETS 56, no. 3 (2013): 480.

[14] “Jericho (Place),” in ABD, 223. Ironically Wood is guilty of the same flaw (see his statement below).

[15] Piotr Bienkowski, Jericho in the Late Bronze Age, Ancient Near East (Warminster, Wiltshire: Aris & Phillips, 1986), Chapter 7; “Jericho Was Destroyed in the Middle Bronze Age, Not the Late Bronze Age,” BAR 16, no. 5 (1990): 45, 46, 69; Geisler and Holden, Popular Handbook of Archaeology and the Bible, 235–37.

[16] Wood, “Dating Jericho’s Destruction: Bienkowski Is Wrong on All Counts,” 47.

[17] Bryant G. Wood, “Researching Jericho,” BS 22, no. 3 (2009): 82.

[18] Nigro and Taha, Tell Es-Sultan/ Jericho in the Context of the Jordan Valley, 25.

[19] Ibid., 35.

[20] Holland, “Jericho (Place),” in ABD, 3:734.

[21] Agence France-Presse, “Jericho’s Ancient Gates Found,” The New York Times, November 28, 1998, 3.

[22] Kenyon, Digging up Jericho, 230.

[23] Holland, “Jericho (Place),” in ABD, 3:736.

[24] Kenyon and Holland, Excavations at Jericho, 3:3:370.

[25] Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 1:1:331.

Jericho is acknowledged as the one of the oldest cities in the world and known for the Biblical account of the wall falling down after 7 days of the Israelites marching around the outside of the city walls (Joshua 6:1–27). Also, note that there is an OT Jericho (Tell es–Sultan) and NT Jericho (or Herodian Jericho) which stood on both sides of the Wadi Qelt almost two miles SW of the OT site of Tell es–Sultan. These are two separate archaeological sites from two different periods.

So what archaeological evidence is there that might shed light on these claims. What are the objectives of the current excavations, progress at the site, and significance of discoveries to biblical study. Who excavated it and what did they find? Although excavated in the past by Austro-German Expedition of E. Sellin and C. Watzinger, then by John Garstang and Kathleen Kenyon their conclusions on the date of destruction conflicted. Today the site excavated under what is called The Italian–Palestinian Expedition (1997–2014) is being conducted by the Sapienza University of Rome. The current publications by the director of Jericho, Dr. Lorenzo Nigro can be found HERE.

There is however a major controversy surrounding the date of the destruction of Jericho, between Dr. Bryant Wood and Dame Kathleen Kenyan. The Kenyon/Wood debate is well documented at the Associates for Biblical Research site (see video of Dr. Bryant Wood explaining the walls of Jericho). It has been called the "Second Battle for Jericho." It is relevant as Kenyan’s excavation reports were not published until after her death and so scholars did not have the opportunity to examine her research and find but just taking her word for her dates. A recent Discovery Channel program Titled "Jericho's Burried Secrets Unearthed" did not even mention the debate but went to the site of Megiddo and noted minimalist archaeologist Israel Finkelstein to date the destruction of Jericho (nice slight of hand as he is known to deny the biblical account as never happened).

You can check out Dr. Wood’s bibliography for some good material on Jericho that is available online. While there is useful information on other sites they often do not mention the debate with Dr. Wood.

I have up–to–date material in my book section “God’s Sovereignty Expressed in the Conquest of Jericho,” Key Themes of the Old Testament: A Survey of Major Theological Themes (2013), 211–216.
It is always important to read material critically and choose good academic sources that specialize in the subject. The following provides a good cross-section of material.

Brule, Annie, Munish Dabas, Amy Guthrie, and Nikhil Kumar, “Jericho,” Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY. LINK
Bienkowski, Piotr. “Jericho Was Destroyed in the Middle Bronze Age, Not the Late Bronze Age,” Biblical Archaeology Review 16, no. 5 (1990): 45–46, 69. LOOKUP See Wood's careful response. Wood, Bryant G. “Dating Jericho’s Destruction: Bienkowski Is Wrong on All Counts,” Biblical Archaeology Review 16, no. 5 (Sep/Oct 1990): 45, 47–49, 68–69. LOOKUP
Cobbing, Felicity. “John Garstrang's Excavations at Jericho: A Cautionary Tale.” Bulletin of the Anfelo-Israel Archeological Society 27 (2009): 63-77.
Davis, Miriam C. Dame Kathleen Kenyon: Digging Up the Holy Land. Wallnut Creek, Calf.: Left Coast, 2008. Google Look Inside Biography of Kenyon who dug Jericho.
Dumbrell, W. J., 1985. “Jericho,” Major Cities of the Biblical World, Ed. R. K. Harrison (Nashville: Nelson), 131–38.
Garstang, John, and J. B. E. Garstang. The Story of Jericho. New revised edition. London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1948.
Graves, David E. “God’s Sovereignty Expressed in the Conquest of Jericho,” Key Themes of the Old Testament: A Survey of Major Theological Themes (Moncton, N.B.: Electronic Christian Media, 2013), 211–16. Look Inside Good up to date information.
Graves, David E. “Jericho,” Biblical Archaeology Vol. 1: An Introduction with Recent Discoveries That Support the Reliability of the Bible. Moncton, N.B.: Electronic Christian Media, 2014, 148–52.
Google Look Inside
Grisanti Michael A. “Recent Archaeological Discoveries That Lend Credence to the Historicity Of The Scriptures,” Journal of Evangelical Theological Society 56 no. 3 (2013): 475–97. PDF Good up to date information.
Kaiser, Walter C. History of Israel. Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman & Holman, n.d. 151–154. LINK
Kelso, James L. “New Testament Jericho,” Biblical Archaeologist 14, no. 2 (1951): 34–43.
Kenyon, Kathleen M. “Early Jericho,” Antiquity, 26 (1952): 116-22. ProQuest
Maura Sala, “Khirbet Kerak Ware from Tell es–Sultan/ancient Jericho: a reassessment in the light of the finds of the Italian–Palestinian Expedition (1997–2000),” in J. Cardoba – M. Molist – M. C. Pérez – I. Rubio – S. Martanez (eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Madrid 2008, 111–133. LINK
Nicole, Murray B. “Archaeology and the Fall of Jericho,” Review & Expositor 58, no. 2 (1961): 173-180.
Nigro, Lorenzo. “Tell Es–Sultan – A Pilot Project for Archaeology in Palestine,” in The Ancient Near East Today 2 no. 3 (March 2014): n.p. WEBSITE
Nigro, Lorenzo. “Tell es–Sultan/Jericho and the Origins of Urbanization in the Lower Jordan Valley: Results of Recent Archaeological Researches,” in P. Matthiae et al. (eds.), 6 ICAANE. Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. 5 May – 10 May 2008,“Sapienza,” Universita di Roma, Roma 2010, Vol. 2, 459–481. LINK
Nigro, Lorenzo, H. Taha. “Renewed Excavations and Restorations at Tell es–Sultan/Ancient Jericho. Fifth Season – March–April 2009,” in Scienze dell’Antichita 15 (2009): 733–744. LINK
Nigro, Lorenzo. “When the Walls Tumble Down. Jericho: Rise and Collapse of an Early Bronze Age Palestinian City.” In Le Ragioni Del Cambiamento. Reason for Changes. “Nascita,” “declino” E “crollo” Delle Società Tra Fine Del IV E Inizio Del I Millennio a.C., edited by R. Peroni and A. Cardarelli, 173–92. Scienze dell’Antichità 15. Rome: Università degli studi di Roma, 2009. LINK
Nigro, Lorenzo, “The Built Tombs on the Spring Hill and The Palace of the Lords of Jericho in the Middle Bronze Age,” in J.D. Schloen (ed.), Exploring the longue durée. Essays in Honor of Lawrence E. Stager, Winona Lake, In. 2009, pp. 361–376. LINK
Nigro, Lorenzo. “Expedition To Palestine and Jordan Results Of The Italian–Palestinian Expedition To Tell Es–Sultan: At The Dawn Of Urbanization In Palestine,” In Tell Es–Sultan/Jericho in the Context of the Jordan Valley: Site Management, Conservation, and Sustainable Development, edited by Lorenzo Nigro and Hamdan Taha, 1–40. Studies on the Archaeology of Palestine and Transjordan 2. Rome: University of Rome, “La Sapienza,” 2006. LINK An excellent survey of the first part of their excavation with over 50 photographs and site maps.
Nigro, Lorenzo. “Tell es–Sultan in the Early Bronze Age IV (2300–2000 BC). Settlement vs Necropolis – A Stratigraphic Periodization,” in Contributi e Materiali di Archeologia Orientale IX (2003): 121–158. LINK
Nigro, Lorenzo. “Results of the Italian-Palestinian Expedition to Tell es-Sultan: at the Dawn of Urbanization in Palestine”, in L. Nigro, H. Taha (eds.), Tell es-Sultan/Jericho in the Context of the Jordan Valley: Site Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development. (= Rome "La Sapienza" Studies on the Archaeology of Palestine & Transjordan, 2), Rome 2006, pp. 1-40. LINK
Nigro, Lorenzo, Nicolo Marchetti, Jihad Yassin. “Second season of excavations of the Italian – Palestinian expedition at Tell es–Sultan/Jericho, October – November 1998,” in Orient – Express 1 (1999): 17–20. LINK
Nigro, Lorenzo, Nicolo Marchetti, Hamdan Taha. “Preliminary report on the second season of excavations of the Italian–Palestinian Expedition at Tell es–Sultan/Jericho, 1998,” in P. Matthiae – A. Enea – L. Peyronel – F. Pinnock (eds.), Proceedings of the First International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Roma 2000, 867–881, pls. 1–24. LINK
Nigro, Lorenzo, Nicolo Marchetti, Jihad Yassin, and M. Ghayada. “Third Season of Excavations of the Italian – Palestinian Expedition at Tell Es–Sultan/Jericho, October – November 1999,” Orient – Express 4 (2000): 82–84. LINK
Nigro, Lorenzo, Nicolo Marchetti, Issa Sarie'. “Preliminary report on the first season of excavations of the Italian–Palestinian Expedition at Tell es–Sultan/Jericho, April–May 1997,” in Palestine Exploration Quarterly 130 (1998): 121–144. LINK
Wood, Bryant G. “Did the Israelites conquer Jericho? A New Look at the Archaeological Evidence,” Biblical Archaeology Review 16 no. 2 (1990): 44–59. Look up in BAR
Wood, Bryant G. “Dating Jericho’s Destruction: Bienkowski Is Wrong on All Counts,” Biblical Archaeology Review 16, no. 5 (Sep/Oct 1990): 45, 47–49, 68–69. Look up in BAR

Dictionaries and Encyclopedias:

The list of abbreviations can be found here. LINK

Alden, Robert L. “Jericho: Archaeology,” In Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible, 4 Vol. edited by Walter A Elwell and Barry J Beitzel, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997, 2:1119–1120.
Archer, Gleason Leonard. “Has not the Joshua 6 account of the capture of Jericho by the Israelites been discredited by the modern archaeological investigations at Tell es–Sultan?,” Page 153 in Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1982. PDF
Bartlett, J. R., 1982. Jericho. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Bernard Reich and David H. Goldberg, “Jericho,” Historical Dictionary of Israel. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2008. LINK
Brisco, T. V., 1990. “Ancient Jericho,” BI 40–49.
Callaway, J. A., 1966. “Jericho (Old Testament),” BW, 305–9.
Coughenour, R. A., 1995 “Jericho,” ISBE ², 2:992–96.
Dever, W. G., 1984. “Jericho,” MDB, 438–40.
DeVries, L. F., 2006. “Jericho,” in CBW, 189–96.
Easton, Matthew G. “Jericho,” Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Third Edition, Nashville, Tenn.: Nelson, 1897. WEB or BST
Easton, Matthew G. “Jericho,” The New Easton Bible Dictionary, Edited by David E. Graves. Toronto, Ont.: Electronic Christian Media, 2016, 306-307.
Elwell, W. A., 1988. “Jericho,” BEB, 1:1118–20.
Gibson, Shimon, and Nachman Avigad. “Jericho,” Pages 137–39 in Encyclopaedia Judaica. Edited by Fred Skolnik and Michael Berenbaum. New York: MacMillan, 2006. LINK
______. “Jericho (Place),” Page 723–37 in Vol. 3. Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 Vols. Edited by David Noel Freedman, Gary A. Herion, David F. Graf, and John David Pleins. New York: Doubleday, 1996.
Graybill, J. B., 1987. “Jericho,” NIDB, 509–12.
Holland, T. A., 1992. “Jericho,” ABD, 3:723–37.
Holland, T. A., 1997. “Jericho,” OEANE, 3:220–24.
Jacobs, Paul F. “Jericho,” In Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, and Astrid B. Beck. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000.
Jamieson, H., 1975. “Jericho,” ZPEB, 3:451–55.
Joines, K., 2003. “Jericho,” HolBD, 759–64.
Kelso, J. L., 1984. “Jericho,” IDB, 2:835–39.
Kenyon, K. M., 1993. “Jericho,” NEAEHL, 2:674–81.
Kenyon, K. M., 1975. “Jericho,” EAEHL, 2550–64.
Kitchen, K. A., “Jericho,” Pages 563-64 in New Bible Dictionary. Edited by I. Howard Marshall, Alan R. Millard, J. I. Packer, and D. J. Wiseman. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1996.
Landes, G. M., 1976. “Jericho,” IDBSup, 472–73.
Lussier, E. “Jericho,” In The New Catholic Encyclopedia, edited by Thomas Carson, 755–757. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2003.
Negev, Avraham, and Shimon Gibson, eds. “Jericho,” "Jericho, Herodian,” page 256 –260 in Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land. New rev., and updated. 1 vols. New York: Continuum International, 2001.
Pfeiffer, Charles F., ed. “Jericho (New Testament),” pages 303–305 in Wycliffe Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000.
Pfeiffer, Charles F., ed. “Jericho (Old Testament),” pages 305–309 in Wycliffe Dictionary of Biblical Archaeology. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000. No mention of Bryant Wood's research.
Smith, William. “Jericho,” Smith's Bible Dictionary. London: John Murray, 1901.
S., E. B. “Jericho,” In The Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, edited by Charles F Pfeiffer, Howard Frederic Vos, and John Rea. Chicago: Moody, 2005.
Schoville, K. N., 1978. “Jericho,” BAF, 391–99.
Thompson, J. A., 1983. “Jericho,” NIDBA, 258–61.
Toombs, L. E., 1996. “Jericho,” HBD, 458–61.
Tucker, Spencer C. “Jericho,” Page 540 in The Encyclopedia of the Arab–Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by Spencer C. Tucker and Priscilla Roberts. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC–CLIO, 2008.